This initiated the development of his ground breaking study which involved pairing a bell (neutral stimulus) with the food (an unconditioned stimulus) to produce a salivation response to the bell when presented alone (Pavlov, 1927). As a result of such survival strategies each species has evolved their own unique sets and standards of behaviours that will not be useful to other species and may result in an extinction of a particular species. An animal is not a thing, but a being that has the right to quality of a natural way of life. Pavlov first discovered the concept of classical conditioning (or pavolvian conditioning) whilst experimenting on the salivation reflexes in a non-human sample of dogs. Transgenic animals may be more vulnerable to allergic reactions, among other things. An excellent post! The cost of equipment and animals is high. In experiments, when confined and kept under control (sometimes physical control) animals tend to develop certain abnormal behaviours not shown in a real life setting such as pacing and self-mutilation. It has a very high rejection rate. When used in humans or animals, genetic engineering can identify the most desirable and sought after traits. Animals do not get many of the human diseases that people do, such as major types of heart disease, many types of cancer, HIV, Parkinson’s disease, or schizophrenia. Animals are considered to be protected as long as animals receive minimum amount of suffering. The harmful use of animals in experiments is not only cruel but also often ineffective. Xenotransplantation has definitely raised a lot of good questions that lean to both the positive and the negative sides. To come up with a well-informed opinion whether xenotransplantation would be good for society or not, let us take a look at its pros and cons. The disadvantage with animal rights is that it equates animal life with human life. Besides people who get lost inside the wood depends on hunted animals as a source of food till relief comes. Xenotransplantation is a method that involves taking the tissues, organs and other parts of the body from animals and then transplanting them into other animals, human beings included. Xenotransplantation is seen to have the potential to open up new possibilities in the field of treating illnesses. Here are the biggest key points to consider. In this essay, the advantages of using animals for scientific testing will first be examined, and then followed by its disadvantages. While animal-to-human infection is uncommon, it has occurred previously. An in-depth understanding and awareness of the limitations of generalizability is extremely important, if not vital, to researchers looking to extend the results gained from animal studies to humans. This is wrong for animals to be forced thrive and adapt to human environments and not being able to be exposed into their own natural habitat. Selective breeding is a process that humans use to select parents from plants or animals that have specific characteristics of interest. Moreover, the brunt of the money is going to organized crime organizations that arrange for the removal and transplantation of the donated organs. It seems that the ethics involved with animal studies has been updated constantly throughout recent years to try and improve the conditions these animals have to cope with. The behavioural theory has been applied to several psychological disorders such as depression, schizophrenia and obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). 4. The simple act of cutting into a dead animal creates a certain resilience within students where they may become comfortable doing the same thing to live animals. Typically, animals have much shorter life spans than humans, which means that if the success rate improves for transplanting animal organs to humans, there would still be a risk of the organs wearing out or dying prematurely. There are also several disadvantages that must be considered. It is a well believed phenomenon that human beings and non-human animals have high enough similarities in terms of physiology and evolutionary past which justifies drawing conclusions from one species onto the other. 12- 95% of drugs tested on animals are either dangerous for human or fails to treat the illness. Being in the presence of animals, especially canines, has many benefits. 2. Although the BBC dubbed this ‘the greatest medical tragedy in history’, the drug has nowadays proven an effective treatment for leprosy (1) and some cancers (2) due to the amide groups in the drug’s structure, which is what unfortunately caused the fetal development defects. Antibiotics—naturally-occurring, semi-synthetic and synthetic compounds with antimicrobial activity that can be administered orally, parenterally or topically—are used in human and veterinary medicine to treat and prevent disease, and for other purposes including growth promotion in food animals. Morphine has been reported to show a calming effect on human beings and also on rats too. ... As much as traditional hunting practices and hunting for sports or gaming remains humans would forever live with the benefits and dangers of … Other than being a significant economic resource, the animal has been used to drive happiness and entertainment activities. It reduces opportunities on the black market for organ donations. SCIENTIFIC DISADVANTAGES OF ANIMAL TESTING PG.3 and animals metabolize substances and how diseases develop within them. This makes humans have more surface exposure of the skeletal tissues. In an effort to ensure animals do not contract diseases, farmers use antibiotics which in the long-term lead to the evolution of bacteria and the rise of drug-resistant pathogens. Animals are not used to interacting with humans in the wild however, when in experimental conditions they are often within close physical contact with humans and therefore bound to change behaviour. However, animal studies are sometimes useful. Like any living being, animals are susceptible to deadly diseases. Disadvantages of artificial insemination. As previously mentioned, heart valves and skin are still the much easily accepted than kidneys or livers. Humans are part of this web and our reliance on the other species is strong. What then are the pros and cons of bipedalism? However, the continued research on finding better ways to use animal tissues and organs in human subjects has also provided great opportunities. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 168-72. These effects are further developed through the disadvantages caused by desalination "impingement" and "entrainment." Petting a dog and sharing its company has been said to lower blood pressure and … For example, humans put the efforts to build the wild environment in the lab room and maintain the breed for them. With much of our diet coming from animal muscle protein, such a legal structure would change the entire agricultural community and potentially create many more food deserts throughout the world. For many years, prisons, nursing homes, schools and other institutions have involved animals for therapy purposes. In the Animal world as well, sheep are mostly Gay. In contrast, morphine results in series of mania phases in other species such as mice and cats therefore highlighting the huge differences between species and illustrating that generalising results from different species can be a very serious and intricate issue within the field of research methods.12 Throughout the history of animal testing there have been examples of the serious implications of generalizing results from animal experiments demonstrating the limitations of usefulness and appropriateness within animal research. Gibbons are believed to have similar communication skills as those of humans. There is a lot of people who oppose xenotransplantation because of their religious beliefs that uphold humans being a superior species to animals, thus making them stand their ground that mixing species is against God’s will. Another problem with these markets is that even if you have the money for buying an organ from a willing donor, you are still taking a huge risk, as there are no regulations, no real oversight and the huge possibility that the organ may be diseased, causing your transplant to fail. ERP has shown to be an effective treatment for OCD with between 60-90% of patients improving from this therapy (Albucher et al, 1998)8. By using this field of medical science and adapt it to human needs, we may eventually be able to put an end to deadly diseases, such as cancer. 1 http://www.jneurosci.org/content/27/48/13140.full.pdf, 2 http://www.flyfishingdevon.co.uk/salmon/year2/aggression/aggression.html, 3 http://www.google.co.uk/#hl=en&output=search&sclient=psy-ab&q=DeCoursey+et+all%2C+2000+biological+rhytyms&pbx=1&oq=DeCoursey+et+all%2C+2000+biological+rhytyms&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&gs_sm=3&gs_upl=185l4256l0l4362l20l20l0l0l0l0l255l3275l0.14.5l19l0&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.,cf.osb&fp=5ae18919d85be997&biw=1366&bih=673, 4 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning. Animal testing typically costs a large amount of money, because the animals have to be fed, housed, cared for and treated with drugs or a similar experimental material. It has been snatched from its natural home in the wild, where it had learned to thrive and forced to live with humans. Some psychologists choose to conduct research on non-human animals for numerous reasons. Change ), You are commenting using your Google account. As you can see, organ donors on these markets are being paid with just very small amounts of money by the agents, who are enjoying the largest share of payments. Additionally, Skinner developed his Skinner box in order to systematically investigate the concept of operant conditioning (the basic process by which operant learning occurs). Another striking similarity. In other words, generalising the results gained from experimentation from one species to another is extremely difficult, especially findings from animal research onto the human population. 1. Dog owners often look like their pets – but does this mean they are the same? Koestler (1970)11 has coined the term “ratmorphism” when referring to generalising results from experiments using rats on to human beings. This is because of the appearance of certain proteins that weren’t originally in the genetic information. 1. It risks shorter life spans of animal organs. Also breeding a lot of wild animals as domestic animals raising damage to the species … While supporters point out that such a risk is low through organ donation, there has been no solid evidence that it would not occur. The aim of this paper is to represent the widespread use of animals in research, with a specific focus on evidence of the advantages and disadvantages of using animals in medical research. Eliminate Diseases Another greatly beneficial use for genetic engineering is when … 2. The hope of making this selection is that the offspring will inherit the desirable traits, allowing future generations to benefit from the chosen changes. Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in: You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. Furthermore, certain other behaviours such as mating might possibly become inhibited for example in Giant Pandas. ( Log Out /  Their efforts create jobs for trainers, handlers, dancers, entertainers, and many others who might not be able to use their creative efforts in other ways. In low- and middle-income nations, 13 livestock-related diseases that can affect humans causes up 2.4 billion cases of human illness. The issue of low ecological and external validity of experiments carried out in a laboratory setting is not only proven tricky with research on humans, it is just as much as an issue with animals. The subtle but impactful difference in genetics between humans and animals results in inapplicable research making animal testing needless. ( Log Out /  Typically, animals have much shorter life spans than humans, which means that if the success rate improves for transplanting animal organs to humans, there would still be a risk of the organs wearing out or dying prematurely. 4. This page describes one aspect of the influence that man has on the quality of life of an animal. The disadvantage of animal research is that it lessens the value of life. The human-animal bond is a unique interaction. Also, it has created a moral dilemma based on religious beliefs, the disposition to have an animal part in a person’s body and the psychological issues that some individuals would have to overcome before they would get used to the idea of such a procedure. In addition, humans also attempt to … It’s tricky! New England Journal of Medicine 341 (21): 1565–1571. In complete contrast, animals have extremely limited cross-cultural transmission between different generations. Though it was found by research that pigs are closely related to humans in terms of biology, the human body still recognizes tissues and organs from these animals as not being natural, causing it to take up arms against the new parts. Though the process of xenotransplantation has not been perfected yet, it can offer life-saving solutions to extend the life of a person who is on a human transplant list long enough. Having an animal as a … In his experiment, Pavolv reported that dogs salivated as a direct response to stimuli associated with food such as a bowl as well as the unconditioned stimuli itself (food). An obvious, yet important point to make is that animals do not possess a language. Some of the presentations will highlight the special role of companion animals … List of the Advantages of Genetic Engineering. Once they identify them, they can manipulate the genes of other animals or humans to ensure these traits are given to them. Yet this system is unstable and ultimately unsustainable. During the tests, it is highly possible that animals would experience inhumane treatment, where they are being restrained. Benefits of the Human-Animal Bond Pet Partners was formed based on the knowledge and research that proves that the human-animal bond is a mutually beneficial and dynamic relationship between people and animals that positively influences the health and well-being of both. Intensive agriculture may be efficient, but it comes at great cost to humans, animals, and the environment. morning sickness can be managed from taking anti-emetic medications that are over the counter.”, Our web portal Obviously, the problem has become worse as the trade has involved the element of exploitation. 10 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hunting Advantages. 5. 1. Or humans just use the animals who have a short reproduction. Over time, the bipedal nature of humans … Such high effective rates (Foa & Kozak, 1996)9 in shaping human behaviour justify generalizing results from animal experiments on to humans. Many theorists have criticized both the practical and methodological procedures of animal research and many refer to the issue of generalizability. Although some believe that the similarities in terms of physiology and evolutionary past justify generalising results on to humans others do not agree. Antibiotic resistance is as ancient as antibiotics, protecting antibiotic-producing organisms from their own pro… The disadvantage is that these human-designed creatures have the potential to harm certain native species of animals or plants. In several cases, people have died waiting for a transplant, and this could have been prevented by extending their lives by temporarily using animal organs long enough to finally be able to get transplanted with human organs. Animals that are born to live in a tough aggressive environment find it difficult to stay in this environment along with humans. The sale of human organs on the black market has been a huge issue, where people from third-world countries often sell their kidneys to agents who then barter with people with enough money to buy such organs for their own use. Studies have shown that mice and rats have a smaller neocortex to brainstem volume ratio. However, this therapy is not effective and appropriate for all patients (Gerhuny et al, 2002)10. Most importantly, domestic animals like … The first experiments go back to the ancient Greece when insulin has been … Another disadvantage regarding animal testing is the price. Supporters of animal testing affirm that animals should not have equal rights with humans as both of these cannot be compared. On a final note, always be aware that the results from animal experiments may not be applicable to human behavior as due to language we are much more advanced. An animal’s behaviour when caged in a laboratory, in a very artificial setting, is bound to be very different to the behaviour the animal shows in the wild and in its natural habitat. However, scientists were soon to realize harmful effects of generalizing results from animal research and subsequently prescribing the drug to human beings as approximately 10,000 babies were born with severe birth defects such as phocomelia (the abnormal or stunted limb growth) due to Thalidomide. All in all, generalisation from animals to humans can be useful as shown by the effectiveness of behavioural therapies yet it is a very dangerous generalisation to make. There are economic benefits to consider when animals perform at the circus. It is still possible that animals receive inhumane treatment. Different kinds of bacteria, fungi, and parasites are major causes of diseases and infections in animals. Create a free website or blog at WordPress.com. Research using non-human animal subjects is extremely common within many areas of psychology for example; addictive behaviours (Caine et al, 2007)1, aggression (Raleigh et al, 1991)2, biological rhythms (DeCoursey et all, 2000)3, classical conditioning (Pavlov, 1927)4, eating behaviour (Zhang et al, 1994)5 and operant conditioning (Skinner, 1947)6. Most animals, once the testing process has been completed, are euthanized. Disadvantages and risks of genetic manipulation. In complete contrast, animals have extremely limited cross-cultural transmission between different generations. As you can see, certain animals, such as crocodiles, have an amazing ability to fight off infections because of the anti-bodies they naturally have in their blood. Creating jobs for humans has moral implications when it is at the expense of animals. From such research Skinner concluded that these consequences (e.g. Change ), You are commenting using your Facebook account. Using animals in laboratory has well-known along the history. 6 Skinner, B. F. (1947). The fact that language is such a huge part of human socialisation and everyday life this sets humans apart from other species. Lots of medical pioneers tried to contribute into the development of this technique. Although this point may seem somewhat insensitive, sometimes the unfortunate accidents that have occurred in the past, stemming from experimental shortfalls, have lead to great findings much further in the future. Relationship between humans and animals Domestic and wild animals have long been an integral part of human culture. This practice has been in place … This would also mean that a person would need to undergo multiple transplants over his lifetime, as the organs would be wearing out. Animals lack the sense of judgment, thus human lives always come first before animal lives. 2) Singhal, S.; Mehta, J.; Desikan, R.; Ayers, D.; Roberson, P.; Eddlemon, P.; Munshi, N.; Anaissie, E. et al (1999). Artificial insemination as a breeding method for animals and infertility treatment for humans has a long history. http://www.melatoninfaq.com/melatonin-dosage/. This is the reason why strong anti-rejection drugs are needed when performing xenotransplantation to depress your entire immune system and make sure it does not respond to health threats as it should. If one piece or species is removed from that web, no matter how small can lead to big problems that are not easily fixed. The extinction of animals effects humans in lots of different ways. 9) The communication skills. It promises life-saving benefits. In the case of OCD the behavioural therapy of Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP) was introduced. While most of the humans and animals are bisexual, there are certain humans who are homosexual. In the recent times, animal testing has often been used as what is known as a precursor to human clinical trials. List of Disadvantages of Animal Testing on Cosmetics 1. Other conference discussions will include ways that human-animal interaction benefits humans and animals, new facets of human-animal interaction, and ways to apply new human-animal interaction knowledge to their fields, the university said. While sucking ocean water in for desalination, the plants trap and kill animals, plants and eggs, many of which belong to endangered species. The research that supports the field … With this in mind, using organs from animals, instead of those donated by humans, can end this type of trade. If animal studies were not present, a lot of the different medicines and medical techniques we have today would not exist. It could satisfy the supply and demand of organs. ( Log Out /  Humans have been manipulating plant and animal life since the beginning of our … Animal tests are unbeneÞcial due to the … For instance, tick fever, pneumonia, viral diarrhea, rabies, skin lesions, and arthritis are some types of diseases in animals and livestock. Such research findings have been generalized to the human population and have contributed to theories of human behaviour and ultimately led to the development of several very successful behavioral interventions such as applied behavior management which is frequently applied within clinical psychology. (image 2) Expensive and extensive. We wish to promote the (in other countries as well) growing of awareness, that freedom is also important for an animal. Due to the initial study involving animals by Pavlov, other researchers have built convincing explanations of human behaviour and behavioral interventions. 13- Chimpanzee is 99% genetically similar to humans and mice have 98% genetically similar to humans. Throughout our evolutionary history every species has had to adapt to gain survival within their own different civilisations and. All in all, generalisation from animals to humans can be useful as shown by the effectiveness of behavioural therapies yet it is a very dangerous generalisation to make. For example, several theories of behaviorism were established from experiments carried out on animals as researchers were able to gain a high level of control and objectivity. The main problem that comes to people for keeping domestic wild animals is their safety. 1. http://www.jneurosci.org/content/27/48/13140.full.pdf, http://www.flyfishingdevon.co.uk/salmon/year2/aggression/aggression.html, http://www.google.co.uk/#hl=en&output=search&sclient=psy-ab&q=DeCoursey+et+all%2C+2000+biological+rhytyms&pbx=1&oq=DeCoursey+et+all%2C+2000+biological+rhytyms&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&gs_sm=3&gs_upl=185l4256l0l4362l20l20l0l0l0l0l255l3275l0.14.5l19l0&bav=on.2,or.r_gc.r_pw.r_qf.,cf.osb&fp=5ae18919d85be997&biw=1366&bih=673, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning, http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JSfnCPlEFygC&pg=PA168&lpg=PA168&dq=Mowrer,+1960+ocd&source=bl&ots=4xZsXtq3Q8&sig=VrY5o-nilWPaq6a24Flcghqn4Ek&hl=en&sa=X&ei=qGpBT7LRJILP0QWkuvWODw&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Mowrer%2C%201960%20ocd&f=false, http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=q_Cp_fURG28C&pg=PA216&lpg=PA216&dq=Albucher+et+al,+1998+ocd&source=bl&ots=nhpLZI_rLm&sig=aUCjEuICHHHprZM18q14ciAcw1E&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3mpBT7O3MaKf0QXx7ImPDw&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Albucher%20et%20al%2C%201998%20ocd&f=false, http://www.integratedsociopsychology.net/Animals_in_Research/Ratomorphism-ArthurKoestler1970.html, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/392758/morphine, http://www.who.int/lep/research/thalidomide/en/index.html, http://www.melatoninfaq.com/melatonin-dosage/. 1) http://www.who.int/lep/research/thalidomide/en/index.html. Change ), You are commenting using your Twitter account. 11- During cosmetic testing 50% of animals die within 2-3 weeks after experiment. In short, each species has their own unique behaviours to ensure reproductive success. 3. It may also cause them to care less about animals, encouraging neglect, abuse, or other forms of cruelty. It risks shorter life spans of animal organs. I noticed you referred to thalidomide, the morning sickness treatment many years ago. (image 1.1 and 1.2) Mutagenesis and function disorders. It has the potential to open up new areas of research. The use of animals in scientific testing brings substantial advantages to medical development towards the treatment of human diseases due to their close resemblance to the physical features of … Multinational corporations have pushed the earth and animals to the limits, in pursuit of ever-soaring profits. By weighing its pros and cons, we will be able to come together and decide whether this is a technology that we pursue as a society. It brings about moral issues. reinforcement and punishment) help shape human behavior and are strong predictors of behavior shown by humans (Skinner, 1947). Genetic mutations can occur which may reslt in diseases and disorders. While there has not been great success with this method of organ transplantation, researchers and scientists did manage to successfully replace parts, such as skin and heart valves. “Antitumor Activity of Thalidomide in Refractory Multiple Myeloma”. Pros And Cons Of Animal Testing On Animals 830 Words | 4 Pages. They are essential to human survival. In the 1950’s Thalidomide was tested on animals and subsequently prescribed to pregnant women to reduce and prevent the symptom of morning sickness13. As a result of language, humans are aware of and have extensive knowledge of both the successes and failures of the history of civilisation. Animals may be too big for their legs, have shorter life spans, and there are low survival rates for transgenic aimals. 3. There are diseases that animals, like pigs, contract and humans do not, sparking some concerns that xenotransplantation would introduce new diseases to people. I do love my own dogs to pieces for example, but if I had to choose between them or my brothers being tested on, unfortunately my dogs would be put up for the study. I therefore think that animal studies are very useful, and even though they have different biological make-up to humans the similarities they have with is can help us to further understand the effects of certain treatments/conditions on humans. Superstition in the pigeon. Experiments have revealed systematic differences in terms of physiology and psychologically between (and sometimes within) species such as the side effects of drugs, brain sizes and attachment styles. Also, they believe that using animals to supplement human life is basically exploiting them for our own needs. But even the most fundamental believer in scrapping animal studies would not be able to argue the case that more human studies should occur. This holds both advantages and disadvantages for the bipedal species. 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