I’m just wondering, do you think you will write the second part? [66] While the Navy found that private suppliers in the west to be the better solution to providing good quality provisions to their ships, it took several decades for this to become the standard practice for the Navy that otherwise waited for supply ships whenever possible. [10] Ehrman, The Navy in the War of William III, 150; Jeake, A Compleat Body of Arithmetick, 74. If a ship took on wine instead of beer, the Navy required mixing the two-pint ration of wine with six pints of water, which would, “preserve the Water from stinking.”[41] In ships heading well beyond the 39º north parallel to such places as the Caribbean or the East Indies, each hundred men received about forty hogsheads of water a month, or near a gallon of water a day per man. [45] Cockburn, An account of the nature, causes, symptoms, and cure of the distempers that are incident to seafaring people, 5; Saussure, A Foreign View of England in the Reigns of George I. The .gov means it’s official. [50] While British Navy victuallers did not receive official orders for them, some captains and pursers had concerns for the health and morale of their crews and tried to obtain vegetables for their sailors whenever possible. [32] Ibid. [31] Cheshire and Suffolk were the most common sources of cheese, to the point that the Navy named them within the regulations and provided specific ration amounts for both types. The Navy required only four hogsheads of water per hundred men a month, or two and a half gallons per man per month. Change ), You are commenting using your Google account. Bloomberg delivers business and markets news, data, analysis, and video to the world, featuring stories from Businessweek and Bloomberg News on everything pertaining to politics As of now, my main priority is to complete my maritime clothing book, so any work on maritime food will have to wait until that is completed. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, 1974), 158; Maureen Waller, 1700: Scenes from London Life (New York: Four Walls Eight Windows, 2000), 186. They supplemented the flour with any fish, fowls, pigs, goats, and cattle they encountered while raiding ashore. While the change took place over a few decades, by the end of the early eighteenth century, rum surpassed brandy in use at sea.[49]. The Giver of Stars: A Novel - Kindle edition by Moyes, Jojo. [30] Macdonald, Feeding Nelson’s Navy, 38. September 2015. One consideration is that the beer issued at sea was a small beer of between one and three percent alcohol. [70] Ibid., 52; “cassava, n”. [2] The stereotype for the diet of sailors during the Age of Sail included ship’s biscuit, salt pork, and rum. Patrick Macdowall blamed victuallers for not providing the amount of rations promised to the Margaret’s owners. Change ), You are commenting using your Twitter account. [54] Daniel Vickers and Vince Walsh, Young Men and the Sea: Yankee Seafarers in the Age of Sail (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), 90-91; Robert Gardiner and Ph. Potatoes rarely appeared in sea rations in northern waters during the eighteenth century since they sprouted in the warm ship’s hold, might turn green and poisonous if exposed to light, and were not widely accepted yet as an appropriate plant to eat, at least by the English. While not allotted a place in the official regulations, some captains and pursers in the Navy did make some efforts to provide vegetables to sailors beyond their rations of peas. The regulations for rations allowed each sailor one gallon of beer per day. In 1719, when the privateer Speedwell needed more provisions before heading to the Pacific Ocean, Captain George Shelvocke stopped at St. Catherine’s Island off the coast of Brazil. “plantain, n.3”. Postscript: Part 2 of this article will cover provisions from non-English maritime services, pirates and maritime food, cooking on ships, mealtime utensils and tableware, dishes served on ships, sailors eating in port, and comparisons to food of the greater lower class. ( Log Out / The 1731 Regulations and Instructions made the practice of providing fresh meat twice a week in foreign ports an official policy. Image printed in Brian Lavery’s “The Arming and Fitting of English Ships of War, 1600-1815” on page 196. This is the version of our website addressed to speakers of English in the United States. When the Navy did keep livestock onboard, it usually belonged to the ship’s captain and officers. [27] Davies, The North Atlantic World in the Seventeenth Century, 161-162. Mariners could endure hard work and ragged clothing, but had little patience for short rations or rotten provisions. To all this I add a can of diced tomatoes, some beef stock, carrots, onions, celery, turnips, peppers, Worcestershire sauce (a glug or two), some soy sauce – same as Worcestershire. and T.S., 1692), 65. Obtaining, housing, and feeding live animals for these large numbers posed more difficulties than keeping or purchasing salted meat. [81] Dampier described three main types of turtle in the West Indies, the terapen, the hawksbill, and the green turtle. One common meal for slaves included horse beans boiled with Muscovy lard purchased from Holland. For why pork or bacon did not supplant beef, even though bacon was cheaper and resistant to spoilage, it still deteriorated more quickly than beef, especially in warm places such as a ship’s hold. A large contract for fish from the Navy offered English fishermen another source of income while they competed with the French in the North Atlantic fish market. [77] Rodger, The Command of the Ocean, 133; The Darien papers, 348, 366; Dampier, A New Voyage Round the World, 1-2, 249, 302; John Atkins, A Voyage to Guinea, Brasil, and the West-Indies; In His Majesty’s Ships, the Swallow and Weymouth (London: Caesar Ward and Richard Chandler, 1735), 42-43; Fontaine, The Journal of John Fontaine, 76, 79-80. During the War of Spanish Succession, the Navy struggled to send provisions regularly to ships stationed in Jamaica and Barbados. Best Dining in Edinburgh, Scotland: See 584,300 Tripadvisor traveller reviews of 2,387 Edinburgh restaurants and search by cuisine, price, location, and more. Salt Pork, Ship’s Biscuit, and Burgoo: Sea Provisions for Common Sailors and Pirates, Editorial: Black Sails, Historical Accuracy, and the Pirate Genre in Hollywood, http://www.piratesurgeon.com/pages/surgeon_pages/goats_in_diet1.html, http://www.piratesurgeon.com/pages/surgeon_pages/pork1.html. One period report on the corrupt practices of some navy victuallers claimed biscuits with such substitute materials contributed to the large loss of life experienced in John Nevil’s 1697 expedition to the West Indies. Containing an Account of Captain Dampier’s Expedition Into the South-Seas in the Ship St George, In the Years 1703 and 1704 (London: James Knapton, 1707), 226. [49] Ibid. Guanciale, or cured pork cheeks, is the vital ingredient in spaghetti carbonara; until now it has been nigh on impossible to get hold of, but now it’s stocked by Waitrose. [3] The most significant alteration came in 1731, when the Navy published a reformed and better-written set of Regulations and Instructions, and replaced the fish ration with three pints of oatmeal a week. OED Online. [12] Remarks on the Present Condition of the Navy, And Particularly of the Victualling (London: 1700), 18-19; Jeff Palvik, private correspondence, October 4, 2015. I can’t seem to find it anywhere on your blog. This obliged the Navy to try to regulate the meat provided to include, “no unusual Pieces.”[20] When obtained in England, much of the beef for ship’s victuals came from North Wales, Lancashire, Somerset, and Glamorgan, where farmers probably raised English longhorns to supply this beef. The final step of the process was pouring a fresh brine, the brine having enough dissolved salt in it to float an egg, into the full barrels. While many people held negative views of potatoes in England, some saw their potential since, “being now very plentiful and cheap, they may become good Food for the Poor People.”[53] While it is hard to document, it is possible to show that sailors in the Navy did occasionally receive cabbage, onions, and other legumes and vegetables in addition to his beef, ship’s biscuits, and peas. Oatmeal, while somewhat disliked by mariners, presented a non-salted food for sailors. Near the end I add some frozen peas and corn. [50] Carla Rahn Phillips, Six Galleons for the King of Spain: Imperial Defense in the Early Seventeenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 167, 169. There they commonly will weigh 280 or 300 pound: Their Fat is Yellow, and the [flesh] Lean white, and their flesh extraordinary sweet.”[82] In the West Indies and South Pacific in particular, the turtle stood as a common staple of the maritime diet. On rare occasions, to bolster their health, the Africans might receive a dram of brandy or other strong alcohol. and ed. Enter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email. [73] In 1731, Navy regulations allowed pursers to have provisions captured from prizes brought onboard Navy ships, but pursers could only issue the captured food when they first ran out of their own provisions of a similar type. At the time, the Navy often used the Winchester measurement for several materials featured in their rations. This effect becomes worse when considering vessels in tropical environments such as the West Indies, Emily Cockayne, Hubbub: Filth, Noise & Stench in England 1600-1770 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 95; Hoh cheung Mui and Lorna H. Mui, Shops and Shopkeeping in Eighteenth Century England (Kingston, ON, Canada: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1989), 154. [46] Hancock, Oceans of Wine, 85, 91, 302, 308-309, 333; Macdonald, Feeding Nelson’s Navy, 41-42. ; William B. Jensen, “Ask the Historian: The Origin of Alcohol Proof,” Journal of Chemical Education 81, no. The crew onboard the ship Margaret began their cruise with each six men receiving five pounds of biscuit a day, compared to the six pounds that men in the Navy received. Some less populated locations found it difficult to provide significant amounts of locally produced food to passing ships since their citizens often grew only enough crops for their own consumption. [76] Be it by raiding ships of common sea provisions or farmers ashore of livestock, mariners often found theft to be a convenient means to resupply themselves. If they did not provide beans, they probably received boiled peas with either lard, suet, or salted herring. The beverage wine so bad that men choose rather to drink water. [32] The Navy obtained much of their butter from Suffolk and the eastern counties of England, though Ireland, and its propensity for raising dairy cows, also stood as a significant source for butter. For replacing rations of beef or pork, Navy pursers could purchase mutton or flour. [13] While rarely mentioned, sailors might receive rusk bread instead of biscuits. I am very much looking forward to the next installment, As we happen to be a crew of French Privateers. When victuallers could not provide these specific foods, Pepys also established substitutes (see table 1 for a complete list of the Navy’s rations from 1677 to the 1740s). Such incidents exposed the salted meat and increased the chances of the meat spoiling. Wow this was a great read, very well written and incredibly well researched and full of interesting information. [77] On remote islands in the middle of the large oceans that contained no inhabitants, sailors often found animals they caught and killed when allowed onshore. When César De Saussure, a foreign observer onboard a Navy ship in the 1720s, commented on navy rations, he stated that each sailors received, “as much [biscuits and beer] as, or more than, can be eaten or drunk in a day.”[36] This suggests that sailors may have not drank the whole gallon they received each day because they could not drink it all or wanted to avoid being drunk on duty. [39] Since the Navy issued enough beer that some sailors might not be able to drink it all, and that they made many efforts to maintain the quality of their beer, Barnaby Slush’s claim that mariners saw beer as the most important part of their rations appears plausible. One explanation for this dearth of information may be same the reason Carla Rahn Phillips found difficulties documenting vegetables for the Spanish sea service in the seventeenth century. After Pepys’s late seventeenth century reforms, veteran mariners such as Edward Barlow and doctors who treated sailors such as William Cockburn said the Navy held an advantage over the merchant service in at least the quantity of provisions issued to sailors. [37] Barnaby Slush, The Navy Royal: Or a Sea-Cook Turn’d Projector (London: B. Bragge, 1709), 71-72. Change ). http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/28479 (accessed December 16, 2016); Hans Sloane, A Voyage to the Islands of Madera, Barbados, Nieves, S. Christophers, and Jamaica (London: B.M., 1707), 1: xviii-xix; Samuel Clarke, A True and Faithful Account of the Four Chiefest Plantations of the English in America (London: Robert Clavel, Thomas Passenger, William Cadman, William Whitwood, Thomas Sawbridge, and William Birch, 1670), 61-62; John Taylor, Jamaica in 1687: the Taylor manuscript at the National Library of Jamaica, ed. The lower class, including sailors in English ports and residents of London, regularly consumed fish and saw it as, “dearer than any other Belly-timber.”[26] While this may have contributed towards the Navy issuing salted fish to sailors, government officials probably considered English interests when making this choice. I sat and I watched all the classic signs -- feet and thighs twitching beneath her perfectly-laundered yellow skirt, her cheeks turning crimson under her make-up, her pupils dilating, her bust thrust unconsciously towards me. The green peas took longer to boil, while yellow peas cooked well when used for puddings. Farmers who raised pigs and cows brought their livestock to market in the fall, which butchers killed and processed into the winter months. [60] Not long afterwards, the captain reduced the beef ration and limited water to three quarts a day. Many people at sea in that era ate or drank all the items in this cliché menu, but also consumed many other foods and drinks. Federal government websites always use a .gov or .mil domain. [79] Regardless of what was available, if an island or remote coastline offered a viable source of provisions, especially animals, mariners regularly tried to exploit it for food. Health also played into the issuing of flour and other ingredients instead of meat. September 2015. For the measure of salt described in this process, it is expressed in volume and not weight. [9] César De Saussure, A Foreign View of England in the Reigns of George I. London: T. Sowie, 1700), 4. [74] Besides taking provisions off captured vessels, raids on land also provided crews with food. This food often lacked in quality, to the point of being inedible and further added to the Navy’s expenses of maintaining ships in foreign ports. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/19429 (accessed November 15, 2015). [24] While British sailors might receive meat several times a week, they received it mostly in salted form since the slaughtering and the processing of meat occurred most often during the fall and early winter. September 2015. Other Baltic and northern countries grew peas that victuallers could import if local farmers could not supply their demands. Thank you for posting this. Calentures refers to a tropical disease sailors frequently suffered from and scarbot meant scurvy. [56] Vickers and Walsh, Young Men and the Sea, 91; Josselyn, John. Today, many of the mainstream American, British, and European drinks, including bitter beer, lagers, Heinekens, Budweiser, or Guinness, all have between two and three times the amount of alcohol in this maritime small beer. While less expensive, this beef held a reputation for being lower in quality and thus robbed sailors of good meals, resulting in Navy officials opposing Irish beef for use in Navy rations. Beyond meat, biscuits, and peas, mariners in the Navy also received rations of dairy products, specifically cheese and butter. [21] Janet Vorwald Dohner, The Encyclopedia of Historic and Endangered Livestock and Poultry Breeds (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), 256-258; Pepys, Samuel Pepys’s Naval Minutes, 134; Hollond, Two Discourses of the Navy, 177. Occasionally, the livestock fell victim to sickness and injury while onboard, with some animals dying, especially during storms because of drowning. About two weeks into the voyage, the captain reduced the biscuit rations down to four pounds per six men. The largest and most notable exception to this system occurred in Barbados during the War of Spanish Succession, where Navy ships received provisions from private suppliers in the Western Hemisphere instead of from supply ships sent from England. Most of this white salt came from Normandy in France. Macdowall wondered where, “the cheat [the corrupt victuallers] lay[,] time can only discover; but our seamen suffers in the meantime.”[62] Besides not having the planned amount of provisions to begin with, a ship could only hold so many barrels and containers of food. Between An High-Admiral and a Captain at Sea (London: Moses Pitt, 1685), 72-76; Cockburn, An account of the nature, causes, symptoms, and cure of the distempers that are incident to seafaring people, 5-6; Barlow, Barlow’s Journal of His Life at Sea, 1: 159-162, 2:425-426. Some slaves refused to eat the food given to them because they could not stomach their strange new diet, or wanted to starve themselves to death since they could not stand the inhuman conditions onboard. John Bigelow (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1904), 124. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/145164 (accessed December 16, 2016). This salt came out of the pit already white in color. To complete the salting process for one hundred pounds of meat, Navy victuallers used four and a half gallons of white salt and one and a quarter gallons of bay salt. OED Online. Medical professionals such as William Cockburn recognized and encouraged oatmeal for improving the health of sailors since they believed salty sea diets contributed to developing scurvy. Sometime in the 1740s, rum mixed with water obtained the name of grog from Admiral Edward Vernon when he was in the West Indies in 1740, who had the nickname “Old Grog” since he wore a grosgrain cloak. (London: James Knapton, 1697), 1-2, 176; Basil Ringrose, Bucaniers of America, Second Volume. [21] Pork and bacon mostly came from Hampshire, the Midlands, and sometimes Herefordshire, which probably used the Hampshire pig that resembled British saddleback pigs and the Tamworth.[22]. Sometimes, barrels of meat did not receive enough brine and crews neglected to check barrels for leaks to make sure the meat needed more or new brine. This is based on the efforts of Charles Heath, who prepared a hundred pounds of salt pork based on a set of nineteenth-century instructions that practically mirrored the method described by Hales in the eighteenth century. Since food played a significant role in the lives of sailors, exploring the specifics of their diets can provide more insights into their experiences at sea. Their efforts resulted in catching and consuming a variety of ocean creatures, including sharks, dolphins, and manatees. Benjamin Franklin defined rusk bread in sea provisions as, “being made of good fermented bread, sliced and baked a second time.” He also claimed rusk was, “the true original biscuit, so prepared to keep for sea, biscuit in French signifying twice baked.”[14] While the word “biscuit” etymology does trace back to words meaning, “twice baked,” British bakers seldom baked their ship’s biscuits more than once during the Age of Sail. [12] While stationed in a port with access to a baker, Navy sailors sometimes received fresh bread, with an allowance of one-half of a two-pound loaf per day. Filter and search through restaurants with gift card offerings. While sailing in northern seas somewhat near home, sailors consumed small amounts of water since the beer ration was already a gallon a day. One hundred pounds of meat required about five gallons of water. In the British maritime service, sailors’ bread came in the form of unleavened biscuits on most voyages. When a slave refused to eat, the ship’s crews physically harassed and beat them, or force-fed them, sometimes with the assistance of a scissor-shaped device called a speculum oris that forced their jaws open. When looking for cheaper sources of cattle, victuallers obtained Irish beef, where farmers raised particular types of Dunn and Polled cattle more fit for dairy production. The fire and gunpowder test did not guarantee an exact or standardized measure of the alcohol content, but it did mean the rum contained at least 50% alcohol. There, he replenished the ship’s stock of provisions beyond those remaining from Europe and fed his men on local fresh foods while in port. The substitute ingredients could be cheaper because of damage or poor quality, and fit for little else than being turned into a flour. Exceptions to these small crews included those of privateering vessels, larger East Indiamen, and some slave ships, which all had the potential of engaging in some kind of combat during the course of a voyage. Oxford University Press. [7] The contractors for biscuits in London obtained most of their wheat from south and southeastern England. In addition, after doing work on this post, I realized that the subject is extremely large, and that if I wanted to pursue it further, I would probably want to publish it in some other format beyond a post on my website. [52] Regulations and Instructions Relating to His Majesty’s Service at Sea, Ninth Edition (London: 1757), 202-203. Two pints of wine, mixed with six pints of water, substituted for the beer ration, especially on Mediterranean voyages. [58] The Navy still struggled to maintain the quality of their provisions, but at least made efforts to improve quality through investigations and using public advertising to recruit better quality suppliers. [8] One pound of biscuits consisted of three to five biscuits, which one period observer described as plate-sized. OED (Oxford English Dictionary) Online. [81] “Colonel Hender Molesworth to William Blathwayt, November 15, 1684, Jamaica,” CSPCS, 1681-1685, item 1938. How did the sailors’ diet compare to that of the lower class ashore. The contract established by Pepys in 1677 mentioned North Sea cod, haberdine (another large kind of cod), “Poor John” (a type of hake fish), and stockfish (another kind of cod). http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/147762 (accessed November 07, 2015); “stockfish | stockfish, n.” OED (Oxford English Dictionary) Online. [59] One example that illustrates the way a civilian vessel reduced their rations compared to those of the Navy is an expedition in 1700 sailing to the Scottish colony of New Caledonia in Panama. There are eight quarters in a bushel and 64 quarters in a gallon, Jeake, A Compleat Body of Arithmetick, 70. [1] Samuel Pepys, Samuel Pepys’s Naval Minutes, ed. [82] Dampier, A New Voyage Round the World, 105. [31] Ehrman, The Navy in the War of William III, 146. As mentioned before, trading oatmeal for fish came from the issues of preserving salted fish and reducing the amount of salted foods in the diet of sailors. Finally, when sailing in seas beyond those of northern Europe, the Navy issued what alcohol they could obtain since beer did not keep well in warmer climates. During Shelvocke’s privateering expedition, they captured a Spanish vessel, which had a supply of food that included marmalade and preserved peaches. Agents for the Board of Trade in Jamaica suggested the Navy should allow local suppliers to provide food in Jamaica during the 1690s. [57] Nigel Tattersfield, The Forgotten Trade: Comprising the Log of the Daniel and Henry of 1700 and Accounts of the Slave Trade from the Minor Ports of England, 1698-1725 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1991), 120-121, 142; T. Aubrey, The Sea-Surgeon, or the Guinea Man’s Vade Mecum (London: John Clarke, 1729), 126-130; John Barbot, “A Description of the Coasts of North and South-Guinea,” in A Collection of Voyages and Travels (London: Messr. Sir Robert Robinson of the HMS Assistance in 1681 presented similar complaints while serving in the Mediterranean. “A View of a Stage & also of ye manner of Fishing for Curing & Drying Cod at New Found Land.” As seen on a Map of North America c.1720 by Herman Moll. Early distillers of rum in the Caribbean, particularly from Barbados, double distilled their rum. [25] Ehrman, The Navy in the War of William III, 146; Macdonald, Feeding Nelson’s Navy, 33-34. The differences between white salt and bay salt according to the 1728 Cyclopaedia is that bay salt came from salt marshes and was not refined to a white color, but remained brown. Many men in the Caribbean made a living by gathering turtles to sell to both local residents and to ships. This is also why I removed “Part 1” from the post title. In the 1690s, Cheshire stood as the most common source of cheese, because sailors preferred this cheese made of full fat milk to the hard Suffolk cheese made from skimmed milk. The oatmeal was so sour that many times it could not be eaten. [42] Ibid. Government agents in Jamaica communicating with the Board of Trade begged the Navy’s pursers be, “restrained from supplying the seamen with rum and strong waters.”[47] This, along with the issue of Navy vessels receiving most of their provisions from supply ships sent from Britain, contributed to the delayed acceptance of rum by the Navy, though economic factors probably helped rum overcome brandy. This changed when going on longer voyages. Examining food for common-rank Anglo-America sailors in the various maritime services requires answering a variety of questions: Attempting to answer these questions, specifically for sailors who sailed between 1680 and 1740, offers a glimpse into a somewhat neglected period of maritime history and provides context to future food choices for mariners in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic eras. [58] Nathaniel Boteler, Six Dialogues about Sea-Services. Map updates are paused. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, pork could mean any flesh from a pig, including bacon. Sailors or Pirates loading provisions onto boat for transport to a ship. One notable difference came with carrying livestock for the crew. more. [9] Biscuits often came in bags, each containing a hundredweight, or a hundred Avoirdupois pounds (or modern U.S. pounds), of biscuits. Charles Heath, “Looks Worse than it Tastes,” Civil War Historian 3, no. Ship’s Biscuits made by Jeff Pavlik, as featured in John Pavlik, “‘Consisting Merely of Flour and Water’: Reproducing the Eighteenth-Century English Biscuit,” Journal of the Early Americans 1, no. And in general the provisions was so bad that several of the men chose rather to eat dry bread alone almost to the starving of themselves, than eat the other victuals.” ADM 1/3551, fo. [13] James Lightbody, The Mariners Jewel; or, A Pocket Companion for the Ingenious (London: Robert Whitledge, 1695), 133. They consumed whichever drinks were available and affordable. Salt makers then took the salt water from the pits and purified it by boiling. The Margaret and other ships found themselves short of provisions for a number of reasons beyond their owners attempting to increase their profits. Looking to expand your search outside of Albuquerque? In 1684, when French Privateers attacked and prevented turtler sloops from bringing turtles to market, a local account estimated that 2,000 people in Jamaica alone ate turtles daily. The Navy victuallers’ process of salting and pickling meat involved several steps. [63] Of all the reasons for mariners to find themselves short of food, spoiled provisions appeared to be the most common cause. New England mariners at sea drank cider, beer, Madeira wine, and rum. These deductions allowed merchant owners to pay their men as little of their shares or wages as possible, or to force them into debt servitude. The meat then went into a brine to remove the blood for five days, since blood can cause meat to spoil while in storage. [26] Henri Mission, M. Mission’s Memoirs and Observations in His Travels Over England, trans. Some administrators and doctors felt that rum and strong drink posed a health risk to sailors in warm climates. [24] Stephen Hales, Philosophical Experiments: Containing Useful, and Necessary Instructions for such as undertaking long Voyages at Sea (London: W. Innys, R. Manby, and T. Woodward, 1739), 89. French raiders attacking Jamaica and Spanish Main in the 1690s often targeted cattle and “hattos,” meaning herds of cattle or cattle ranches. While the Navy issued either pork or beef four days a week, until the 1730s, sailors might eat salted fish on the remaining three days of the week according to the Navy’s regulations. [34] Macdonald, Feeding Nelson’s Navy, 30, Ehrman, The Navy in the War of William III, 145. The sea offered crews a bounty of fish to catch. & George II. [63] Henry Pitman, A Relation of the Great Sufferings and Strange Adventures of Henry Pitman, Chyrurgion to the late Duke of Monmouth (London: Andrew Sowle, 1689), 35.
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